DNA Profiling

Introduction

We live in a fast changing world. In times past, law enforcement agencies certainly looked for the murder weapon in murder cases before the crime of murder can be proved; while a Police line up is needed to prove the crime of rape. Today, we have certainly come a long way, and using the afore mentioned methods of crime detection and prevention will be of no effective use as criminals have become more sophisticated in their modus operandi and as such, law enforcement agencies have to adapt to be able to effectively police and prevent criminals.

Due to the increasing use of modern and sophisticated methods by criminals, law enforcement agencies have introduced the use of DNA in crime detection and prosecution. DNA short form for Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid containing the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. DNA profiling as it is better known is also known by other names such as DNA testing, DNA typing or genetic fingerprinting is used by forensic scientist to identify individuals by their DNA. According to Wambough (1989) DNA profiling can be attributed to the pioneering scientific works of Alex Jeffrey in England. Lazer and Meyer (2004) stated that there is no better way of identification than the DNA; while Townley and Ede (2004) called it the greatest scientific breakthrough in forensic science.

DNA is a powerful tool used by law enforcement to solve crimes. Currently in the US, several rape and murder cases has been reversed as a result of DNA profiling. DNA profiling is the use of biological information in crime solving by law enforcement agencies such as the Police, Interpol, FBI and others. Biological information collected from crime scenes are matched with samples stored at a central data base to determine the identity of the criminal. Samples are not limited to fingerprints; saliva, blood, semen and even hair roots can be used. Body fluids can be collected from tooth brush, razor, combs etc. Statistically there is no chance of error with DNA profiling as there is 1 in 1 billion chance of error or the probability of 0.000000001 of identity error with DNA. Currently there is an international co-operation in using DNA through Interpol. DNA database are all around the world, with US and UK having the largest of about 5 millions records as at 2007. Three major database of DNA exist worldwide: these are in the US, maintained by the FBI: and the remaining two are in Europe, maintained by Interpol and ENFSI (European Network of Forensic Science Institute).

Benefits of Using DNA

There are several benefits that can accrue from the use of DNA in crime solving. These benefits include the potential to make speedy and robust offender identification through automated profile comparison in criminal databases. Since DNA works by comparing samples with information already in data base, once there is a hit, the law enforcement agencies do not need to spend time on investigating crimes, rather, the database provides the details of the offender to enable law enforcement agents make speedy arrest. It also has the ability to eliminate innocent suspects from crime investigations. At times, suspects are advise to donate there DNA for testing to prove there innocence or if they have nothing to hide. The ability to generate court acceptable evidences and cost effective crime investigation is also another benefit gained by the use of DNA testing.

In the quest for justice especially in crimes committed against women (rape), DNA profiling has proved an invaluable companion. DNA can and do provide conclusive evidence especially in rape cases. The chance of error has been reduced to 1 in 33 billion. Being there are only 7 billion people on planet earth, the chances of error are non-existing (Coleman and Svenson, 1994).

Finally, DNA profiling can serve as deterrent of potential offenders (Williams & Johnson, 2005). Moreover DNA database can be used for paternity cases and the predisposition of certain disease or behaviour (Lazer, 2004). When DNA is used to prove biological relationship, not only does it establish family relationship, but it also establishes financial and emotional support.

Issues in the use DNA Profiling in Crime Solving

Whichever way it is looked at, DNA has several advantages, however, several issues has come to the fore from its use. These issues have made DNA profiling in crime solving not being generally acceptable. Lacher (1997) in her work stated that despite the benefits of DNA profiling several factors inhibit its use.

First, there is the question of fake DNA samples. Criminals at times plant fake DNA samples from foreign scenes on crime scene to mislead the crime investigators. There is no way a retrieved DNA sample from an alleged crime scene will show that it was lifted from somewhere else. In a celebrated rape and murder case, the offender used a condom, while leaving DNA samples from another person to mislead the investigators. Eventually luck ran out of him and he was arrested.

Secondly, swabs used to collect DNA samples might be sterile but not DNA free. This simply means that swabs from a particular company might contain the DNA of the factory worker, and this will mislead the investigators in the investigation. The famous case of Phantom of Heibronn is a typical example. In the case, the swabs from a particular company contained the DNA of probably the employee who parked the swab batch. Because of this unwitting inclusion, the worker’s DNA sample turned up in several crime scenes across Europe where the swab from the particular company was used. Over twenty cases were reported ranging from rape, murder, theft, robbery. In its defense, the company stated that the swabs were sterile, not DNA free.

Thirdly, other issues include storage of samples in the database over time. First samples maybe corrupted leading to false results; secondly, samples taken without consent may not be acceptable as court evidence. This has raised the ethical question of privacy rights. Samples can also be compromised. The deceptive use of DNA database by the investigative authorities in criminal prosecutions (O J Simpson case). In O J. Simpson’s case, several DNA samples were collected, yet the prosecution failed to prove its case, because of improper handling of the samples.

DNA database contain detailed information not only about the individual, but also racial and ethnic origin, medical history, family information among others. These create conflicts with civil liberties of the person as inappropriate use of such information can lead to discrimination.

Other ethical and social reasons against DNA can easily be linked to genetic mapping. As some genes may show a predisposition to commit crimes, which may make one guilty until proven innocent if the genes and crime are positively correlated. Using DNA to profile such individuals as a would be rapist certainly violate civil liberties and human rights.

Again since DNA traits can be used to determine a person’s race, colour, eye colour, hair colour and height and some other personal traits; when the DNA from crime scene do not match any in the database, the Police could use the personal traits to develop a profile for the suspect. This might be the perfect choice or alternative in the movies such as the Profiler, however in real life, the probability of arresting and prosecuting the wrong person is really high. Take for example information such as male Caucasian, early twenties, dark hair, and over 6 ft. This profile will fit millions of people in any major city in the US or UK. This action may invariably lead to the wrong person being convicted or detained.

While DNA samples can certainly prove one’s innocence or eliminate a potential suspect in a crime case, however, this violates human rights and civil liberties as the process of elimination may actually expose one to negative consequences such as undue publicity, which may affect economic activities. Cases abound where someone’s innocence was proven, yet the neighbours and associates ostracized such a person based on his/her being a suspected to a crime.

Conclusions

Issues in DNA can be said to have been over flogged. But what is the final truth about DNA? Does it ultimately prove guilt or ultimately limit human rights and civil liberties? While several things can be said about DNA, there is no doubt it has proved the innocence of hundreds and the guilt of thousands. DNA evidence has in several cases supported human rights by setting free wrongly convicted persons. Today a record 200 cases of rape and murder has been overturned by DNA evidence which has helped to prove the innocence of the victims.

Issues of civil liberties and human rights have continued to dominate any discourse on the acceptability of DNA evidence especially in courtrooms. In order to overcome these obvious limitations, Koshland (1996) observed that “caution is appropriate; unreasonable doubt is not.” DNA profiling has been criticized for violating civil liberties and human rights as can be seen from the above discourse.  However, Lazer (2004) opines that one of the issues in DNA profiling is the criminal justice system and not the technology itself.

“There is no dispute about the underlying scientific principles of DNA; however the adequacy of laboratory procedures and the competence of the experts who testify should be open to inquiry (Connors et al., 1996).

The obvious benefits should be properly considered. Safeguards need to be put in place to guarantee privacy rights while at the same time, ensuring that crime offenders are adequately punished.

References

Coleman, H. and Swenson, E. (1994). DNA in the Courtroom. Seattle: GeneLex Press. P.30.

Connors, E., Lundregan, T., Millor, N. and McEven, T. (1996) Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science: Case Studies in the use of DNA Evidence to Establish Innocence after Trial. Virginia, US: Department of Justice.

Koshland, D. E. (1996) Science. In: Coleman, H. and Swenson, E. (1994). DNA in the Courtroom. Seattle: GeneLex Press. P.30.

Lachter, K. (1997) Science and the Laws: Implications of DNA Profiling. www.darmouth.edu.

Lazer, D. (2004). DNA and the Criminal Justice System: The Technology of Justice. Cambridge Mass: MIT Press.

Lazer, D. and Meyer, M. (2004). DNA and the Criminal Justice System: Consensus and Debate: In: Lazer, D. (Ed). DNA and the Criminal Justice System: The Technology of Justice. Cambridge Mass: MIT Press. Pp. 357-390.

Townley, L. and Ede, R. (2004). Forensic Practice in Criminal Cases. London: The Law Society.

Williams, R. and Johnson, P. (2005) Inclusiveness, Effectiveness and Intrusiveness: Issues in the Developing Uses of DNA Profiling in support of Criminal Investigation. Journal of Law, Med Ethics 33(3): 545-558

Wambaugh, J. (1989). The Blooding. New York: A Perigord Press Book. P. 83.

The Human Genome Project. What are the Implications of Mapping the Human Genome?

Introduction

In the journey to survival, the human race has certainly overcome several obstacles that threatened its existence on earth. Diseases such influenza, smallpox, cholera etc. are today regarded as things of the past. However, even today greater challenges are yet still to be overcome. Diseases such as Alzheimer, hypertension and cystic fibroid are threatening human existence on planet earth. In order to master these daunting challenges, the Human Genome Project (HGP) was introduced.

The HGP project was started in 1990 (HGMIS, 1990). Its basic objective is to understand and map the genetic makeup of human specie by focusing on the nucleotides. Nucleotides are molecules that when joined together make up the individual structural units of the nucleic acides RNA and DNA. According to Alberts et al. (2002) nucleotide derivatives such as nucleoside triphosphates play central role in metabolism in which capacity they serve as sources of chemical energy.

The Human Genome Project is an inter departmental affair in the US; the departments involved are the department of Energy Office and department of Health and Human Services. These department are combining effort to map the human genome. Likewise, private contributions from Celera Corporation which started it’s research into HGP in 1998 is also helping the gene mapping effort. The Celera Corporation, private investment into the mapping of the human genes with the intention of making money from it. In Europe and Asia, likewise, there are efforts by other governments to map the human genome. Governments of UK, Japan, France, Germany, Spain, China and India are also involved in their own way towards the mapping of human genome, it is a $3 billion project.

The genome of any given individual (except for identical twins and cloned organisms) is unique; mapping “the human genome” involves sequencing multiple varieties of each gene (Harmon, 2010). The HGP has identified about 100,000 human genes and mapped their locations. Its primary objective is to find disease causing genes and possible use the information to develop more specific treatments; and also to locate patterns in gene expression which could provide more insight into the body’s emergent properties. Basically the genome of any individual is unique; mapping the human genome involves sequencing multiple variations of each gene (Herman, 2010).

Definition

According to Krulwich (2001) HGP is an international scientific research project with the primary goal of determining the sequencing of chemical base pairs which make up DNA and of identifying and mapping the approximately 25,000 genes of the human genome from both a physical and functional standpoint. DNA which is full meaning is Deoxyribonucleic acid is a nucleic acid containing the genetic instructions used in development and functioning of all known living organisms (with the exception of RNA viruses). Kjono (1997) has defined the Human Genome Programme is the process of mapping the complete human chromosome.

Benefits of Human Genome Project

The mapping of human genes is expected to provide several benefits to the entire human race. Diseases such as Alzheimer, breast cancer, cystic fibrosis, among others has greatly been reduced by advances in HGP as genetic test can show predisposition to variety of illness and significant improvement in their management. This is because since genes identify the entire make up of the human being, a thorough mapping or understanding will reveal the genes likely to cause these diseases, and it is well known fact that early diagnoses ensures better treatment and management of diseases.

The HGP also provides a detailed database where researchers can compare findings with others in the advancement of the human genes. These database is being maintained by government agencies, companies and private firms that are involved in the human gene mapping project. And this database is freely available to all interested researchers; its availability to provide information is assured. Also greater understanding of diseases at molecular level will provide better therapeutic procedures.

Other benefits expected include the opening up of new avenues in the study of evolution, through the tracing of making up of human gene. A thorough understanding of DNA can revolutionalize the ways to diagnose, treat, and prevent certain diseases. It provides better clues to understand human biology. Human biology in an area of study that studies and examines the influences of such fields as nutrition, genetics, physiology, evolution, and other areas.

According to Collins (2001) genetic medicine hold the ultimate promise of revolutionalizing the diagnosis and treatment of many illnesses. Furthermore, Collins (2001), opines that potential misuse of genetic information such as discrimination and obtaining health insurance and in the work place will need to be dealt with swiftly and effectively.

Implications of Human Genetic Project

The perceived implications of the HGP project can be viewed from several viewpoints. These are commercial, legal, ethical, and social implications.

Commercial and Legal Implications

The commercial implications mainly has to do with pharmaceutical companies as genetic mapping will provide better methods of treatment and management of certain diseases. Diseases such hypertension, Alzheimer, cystic fibroid among others can be traced to the genetic make up of the individual. Once the genes are completely mapped, pharmaceutical companies can make better drugs that will prevent these disease. From another viewpoint, since research and data are already mapped, less or nothing at all will be spent on research. In all, the society benefits from cheaper method of treating diseases, or even complete eradication of certain diseases, while pharmaceutical companies has increase profit margin.

The legal implication has to do with copy rights and ownership of the mapped genetic data.  However since the HGP is funded mainly by governments of the world with public funds, and they have agreed to make the data available for any interested party to use or even add to, copy rights do not necessarily arise. Although private concerns are also involved in genetic mapping, but since the US government announced that data from genetic mapping will be freely available, the shares of Celera Corp have drastically fallen down, to reflect the desires of the public.

Another legal implication has to do with human rights and civil liberties. There is an increased fear that since genetic information is a reveal all, private and confidential data that are better kept secret will be in public domain; such information will have negative effects which may cause undue discriminations.

Ethical and Social Implication

Due to the nature of the HGP some interested quarters has questioned the moral rights of people and society to play God by mapping the origin of human genes which will ultimately eradicate all known diseases. However this argument is lame for the benefits for outweigh the cost.

Societal concerns

These concern who and how the information should be used. Insurers for one might use the information to determine premium charge on health and life insurance as certain genes may mean the vulnerability or susceptibility to certain diseases. Employers on the other hand might use to information received from the database to discriminate against people from certain races or ethnic backgrounds as the genes might portend great health risk, which means great cost to employers. Cost in high health bills, absenteeism, and decreased work output.

Adoption agencies and adopting parents will discriminate based on available information as certain groups of people will become unattractive to adopters. For instance the genes may reveal susceptibility to Alzheimer disease in adulthood, this information will render the person un-adoptable. Schools also will use the information to decide on whom to admit, who to offer scholarships. Genes that portend communicable diseases will make the student un-admittable to schools.

The societal implications it is important to determine who should have access to genetic database, and how its usage will be controlled and regulated to avoid undue discrimination.

Privacy and Confidentiality

The data base of genetic info will reveal certain information about people, information that is better kept private and disclose. This issue brings to the fore the issue of privacy. Since the formal launching of HGP, Clinton the US President said that database will be free to all to use for their research.

Theological implications

Since genetic mapping will choose one’s genes or manipulate it in a child to improve his health in adult life; it’s like playing God. Winker (1997) states that since the human genome is all the information that makes up  the master blueprint for building a man or woman, interfering with it in any way is like playing God. A study of genome is like eating the fruit of life by Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and the subsequent fall from grace and final death that resulted thereafter. To counter the effects of this, George Bush the US President establish the council on Bioethics in 2002.

Cost

The cost implications of the genome mapping are simply enormous. The estimated $3 billion the genome mapping is to cost is such an amount that can eradicate poverty in all the third world countries where over 70% live on less that $1 a day.

Conclusions

Today, most of the microbes that make up the human genome has been mapped and published. With this information, researchers and scholars hope to better under how the human body reacts with genes causing diseases and find better and cost effective ways of treating and managing them.

These studies are ground breaking, and as technological improvements continue, the cost of sequencing and mapping the human gene will continue to decrease, thereby making it possible and cheaper to completely map the human genome; and as these continues, there lies the hope mankind to completely master origin and causes of diseases that has for centuries threatened the existence of man on earth.

References

Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K. and Walter, P. (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4^th Ed).Garland Science. Pp. 120-121.

Collins, F. S. (2001) Implications of Human Genome Project for Medical Science. JAMA 255(5): 540-544.

Kjono, J. (1997) Genetic Screening. Retrieved from http://www.ndsu.edu/pubweb/~mcclean/plsc431/students/kjono.html

Krulwich, R. (2001). Cracking the Code of Life. Television Show

Harmon, K. (2010). Genome Sequencing for the Rest of Us. Scientific American. Retrieved 13-08-2010.

HGMIS (2011). About the Human Genome Project: What is the Human Genome Project. The Human Genome Management Information System. Retrieved 18-07-2011.

US Department of Health and Human Services and Department of Energy (1990) Understanding Our Genetic Inheritance. The US Human Genome Project: The First Five Years. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services.

Winker, H. H. (1997). Knowing the Human Genome: The impact on Society. www.theharbinger.org. Retrieved on

JOHN ATTA MILLS: Death of a Sitting President

Death according to William Shakespeare in Julius Caesar is a necessary end which will come when it will come. As a matter of fact, it is one of lives events which do not discriminate between the rich and poor; low and mighty; black and white; male and female. It is something which we all share in common and as such, it is inevitable. In as much as it is inevitable, however, it is not a common occurrence for a sitting President to die; especially from health related causes. There are two primary reasons for this; first, a President if for nothing else has at his beck and call the full resources of a country to utilize to ensure his wellbeing. Secondly, if a President could die of a medical or health complications, then the ordinary citizen is left at the mercy of every manner of disease and illness.

Going down memory lane, the United States of America, out of its 44 Presidents to date has recorded eight Presidents who died while in office; of this number, four where assassinated, while the other four where from health related causes. Here, J. F. Kennedy assassination of 1963 readily comes to mind. However, in this millennium, (2000 to date), the world has recorded twenty six Presidents who died in office; of this number, Africa has a fair share of ten. However, it is noteworthy to mention that gone were the days when assassinations were the common cause of death for sitting Presidents, today, health is the common cause.

In the African continent, in this millennium the following Presidents have died while  in office: Muhammed Haji Ibrahim of Somaliland in 2002; Gnassingbe Eyadema of Togo in 2005; Pascal Yoadimmadji of Chad in 2007; Levi Mwanawasa of Zambia in 2008; Lanasa Conte of Guinea in 2008; Omar Bongo Ondimba of Gabon in 2009; Umaru Musa Yar’Adua of Nigeria in 2010; Malam Bacai Sanha of Guinea Bissau in 2012; Bingu Wa Mutharika of Malawi in 2012; and finally, John Atta Mills of Ghana in 2012.

As with every other sad event such as this, tributes from all over the world have continued to pour in for the late Ghanaian President. The leader of the free world, President Obama described Mills as having worked tirelessly to improve the lot of Ghanaians. Obama had chosen Ghana for his first African visit after becoming President. Obama attributed Ghana’s economic growth and democracy to Mills. Ban Ki Moon, the Secretary General of United Nations described Mills as a dedicated statesman with several years of service to Ghana.

Other world leaders such as the Prime Minister of Japan, Yoshito Noda paid tribute to Mills’ efforts to strengthen Ghana-Japan relations. Ex-President Kufour who twice defeated Mills in Presidential elections expressed his sadness and said the death of Mills is a great loss to Ghana. The President of France, Francois Hollande described Mills as a defender of Ghana’s democracy and a President that was deeply attached to improving Africa’s position in the comity of Nations. Liberia’s Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf called Mills a leader with integrity.

Commonwealth Secretary General Mr. Kamalesh Sharma described Mills as an inspiring leader and true commonwealth champion who will be missed at home and internationally. Kenyan President Kibaki and Prime Minister Odinga also sent in separate condolence messages describing Mills’ death as a blow to Ghana and Africa, while his ascension to Presidency, an inspiration to all. Leaders of Political parties in Ghana, also expressed their sadness. The Progressive Peoples Party (PPP) and Great Consolidated Popular Party (GCPP) were among those that send in consolatory messages.

Nearer home, Nigeria’s President Goodluck Jonathan who had been expecting to receive Mills in an official visit sometime in the near future in a statement said the government and people of Nigeria sympathize with and express solidarity with the people of Ghana at this time. President Goodluck paid glowing tributes to Mills’ effort in consolidating Ghana’s democracy and socioeconomic development. Governor Fashola of Lagos State said Mills’ wise and pragmatic approach to governance has succeeded in making Ghana a reference point in Africa. Senator Saraki in his message said Mills contributed immensely to Nigeria-Ghana bilateral relations.

President John Evans Fiifi Atta Mills was born on 21^st July in 1944 at Tarkwar in Ghana’s Western Region but is actually from Ekumfi Otuam of the Central Region. His early education started at Achimota Secondary School where he obtained his O and A levels in General Certificate of Education (GCE) in 1963. He was an undergraduate at University of Ghana, Legon and obtained his Bachelor’s degree in Law and Professional Certificate in Law in the years of 1966 and 1967 respectively.

In the 70’s he moved his academic pursuits to the UK; institutions he attended in UK include the prestigious London School of Economics, (LL.M); and the School of Oriental and African Studies of the University of London where he obtained a PhD in Taxation and Economic Development at the youthful age of 27.

For over twenty five years, Mills or ‘Prof’ as he was also called was on and off the lecture room in several institutions of Higher learning in Ghana. He started with the University of Ghana, Legon as a Lecturer, and rose through the ranks to become an Associate Professor and finally a Professor in the academic arena.

Mills was a Fulbright scholar at the Stanford Law School in 1971 in the US. Fulbright is an international education Exchange Program founded by Senator J. William Fulbright in 1946 in the US to encourage academic excellence and mutual understanding between US and other countries of the world. The Program provides grants for graduate study, research and University lecturing. Mills was also a visiting Professor to Temple Law School, Philadelphia, USA and visiting Lecturer at Leiden University, Holland between the years of 1978 – 1986.

The political career of Mills effectively took off in 1986 when he was appointed Acting Commission of Internal Revenue Service under the Presidency of Rawlings; a position he occupied till the year 1993 when he was made a Commissioner. He was a commissioner till 1996.

During the second tenure of military man turned civilian president Rawlings, due to political exigencies, Rawlings chose Mills as his running mate. With Rawlings victory at the polls, Mills served as the VeePee of Ghana from 1996 to 2000.

At the expiration of the tenure, Mills slugged it out with past President Kufour twice at the polls in 2000 and 2004; and those two times he lost. However, in 2008, Mills contested yet again for Ghana’s Presidency against Nana Akufo-Addo. That election did not produce any clear winner as stipulated by Ghana’s electoral laws. The situation led to a runoff election. Although Mills was later quoted to have said his friend T. B. Joshua had predicted that he will contest thrice before winning the Presidency.

The runoff election was a study in itself. For Africa, elections are usually associated with thuggery, rigging, and bloodbath, however, Ghana was able to pull it off successfully. History of runoff elections in Africa shows that they are beset with crisis. Zimbabwe runoff election in 2008 between Mugabe and Tsvangirai led to a coalition government to avoid bloodbath; Liberia’s runoff election in 2011 between Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf and Winston Tubman was boycotted by the opposition; Guinea Bissau runoff election in 2012 was cancelled by a coup. Although Egypt was able to pull off a runoff election in 2012 between Mohammed Morsi and Ahmed Shafiq successfully, without any violence.

Mills won the Presidency from his position as the opposition leader in 2008, when he defeated the ruling party candidate. A feat that is clearly difficult to achieve in an African election. Mills won that election with the slimmest of margins in a runoff with 50.2% of the votes with the campaign slogan: a better man for a better Ghana.

Mills will be remembered for some of his notable quotes such as:

I will be President for all Ghanaians whether they voted for me or not;

I pledge to ensure that Ghana remains a heaven of peace and unity for all the youths of Ghana;

My administration will not parade scapegoats or seek refuge in excuses;

I will not condone actions that pitch one citizen against another as a way of settling political scores;

I remain undaunted by attempts to thwart the fight against corruption by legal and technical means;

As a people our greatest achievement has come when we  have lived up to the ideals that unite rather than divide us and have attached ourselves to a common sense of purpose.

Unlike the situation in Nigeria and other African countries where lots of political horse trading takes place before a VeePee is sworn in, the handover of power to Vice President Dramani Mahama was within hours of the official announcement of the death of John Mills. It is noteworthy to compare the situation with Nigeria in 2010 where the Save Nigeria Group (SNG) and other activists had to resort to the trenches before President Jonathan Goodluck could start as Acting President before finally assuming power as the President. Ghana’s example is indeed a shining path for other African countries to toe.

While in office as the Commander in Chief of Ghana’s Armed Forces, President John Atta Mills recorded several notable achievements. Top on the list is the production of oil from Jubilee Oil fields in Ghana. This feat has written Ghana’s name among world’s oil producers; and Ghana is expected to earn US$400m in the first year and up to US$1bn in subsequent years. Even more notable is the transparent manner in which this natural resource is being managed. By this act, Ghana has effectively escaped the Resource curse which is affecting many countries in Africa. Ghana’s economic growth due to its oil discovery has risen to 12% p.a.

Another achievement is increasing economic ties with China. Mills paid a state visit to China in September 2010; and there was a reciprocal visit by Chinese official to Ghana in November 2011. China has made significant contributions to Ghana’s economy. The World Bank has described Ghana’s economy as one the fastest growing economy in the world.

Due to Mills efforts, President Obama has described Ghana as a good example for democratic credentials and he paid a state visit to Ghana in 2009. A visit by an American President is no mean feat to achieve. Mills was also in Oval Office to discuss bilateral relations with the US in March 2012.

Although no official cause of death was given, but Mills had recently returned from the US for an eight day medical checkup for cancer of the throat. Mills tenure was supposed to end in five months time and he was actively preparing to contest the Presidential election come December 7, 2012 for a second term in office. He died on 24^th July 2012, just barely 3 days after his 68^th birthday and was survived by his wife and a son.